What are the biomechanics underpinning a powerful and fast volleyball spike?

Introduction

There are several key biomechanical principles that underpin a powerful and fast volleyball spike. Understanding the factors that manage human movement are an essential aspect that is involved in physical education, exercise science and sport professionals. Educators and scientists are both interested in helping individuals learn how to move efficiently and effectively (Wuest & Fisette, 2012, p.183). The term biomechanics is a sub discipline of physical education, exercise science, and sport which is focussed on the application of the scientific principles of mechanics as a measure to understand the movements and actions of human bodies and sporting implements (Wuest & Fisette, 2012, p.184). Biomechanics offers important scientific knowledge that can improve an individual’s performance. The volley ball spike is an aggressive hit or attack on the ball. Spiking requires a considerable amount of motion and concentration with accurate timing (Pacific Coast Volleyball Camps, 2014). The aim is to generate as much power through the ball in order to finish the point. The power that is generated into the ball can be maximised through the analysis of biomechanical principles to efficiently execute a spike with adequate speed.

When the volleyball spike is broken down into movement phases, the specific bodily movements can be analysed through a biomechanical approach. This approach will assist in improving the performance of the individual through quantitative research. Quantitative analysis can be explained through many biomechanical principles to provide specific numerical information about the movement analysed (Wuest & Fisette, 2012, p.206). Specific information regarding aspects such as the joint angles during movement, the force generated, and the speed of movement is provided. The analysis of the volleyball spike will follow a quantitative approach that will ideally improve an individual’s execution of the skill.

Figure 1: Biomechanically correct volleyball spiking technique

What are the biomechanical principles associated with the preparation phase?

There are several principles that are relevant in analysing the preparation phase of the volleyball spike in order to maximise the power and speed. The volleyball spike should initially begin when the set is half the distance to the spiker. There are several footwork patterns that a volleyballer may use in order to execute the volleyball spiker but it can be seen that not all are as efficient biomechanically when compared to the muscle expenditure of certain jumping techniques (Ziv & Lidor, 2010, p.562).

When the spiker jumps, they are applying a vertical and horizontal force when the feet contact the ground (Blazevich, 2012, p.45). Newton’s Third Law explains the action and reaction of the spikers jump from the ground

For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

During Newton’s Third Law a vertical force is applied when the foot makes contact with the ground. The ground then exerts an equal and opposite reaction force (Blazevich, 2012, p.45). The volleyball spiker must be conscious of the fact that if the force is large enough to overcome their inertia during the ground contact the equal and opposite reaction will accelerate them forwards (Blazevich, 2012, p.45). This movement is beneficial but it must be timed accurately so that the spiker does not make contact with the net.

The volleyball spike requires athletes to vertically jump as high as they are capable of (Ziv & Lidor, 2010, p.556). In order for the volleyballer to jump higher the greatest vertical acceleration is required before leaving the ground to be able to create the greatest initial vertical velocity (Ziv & Lidor, 2010, p.556). The greater the velocity, the higher the centre of mass will be able to be reached. The volleyballer is required to create as much force as possible over the shortest period of time for the greatest vertical acceleration to be executed (Ziv & Lidor, 2010, p.556). Two jumping techniques can be analysed to determine their efficiency; the hop-approach where the player’s feet impact with the ground simultaneously at the last stage of the approach and the step-close approach where the player strides with one foot and closing with the other foot at the last stage of the approach (Ziv & Lidor, 2010, p.562). There are no apparent performance differences in a well executed jump as the take off velocities are similar (Ziv & Lidor, 2010, p.562). Through a biomechanical perspective the hop-approach can be explained as more demanding as there are higher muscular efforts over a shorter period of time (Ziv & Lidor, 2010, p.562).

The volleyball spiker would swing both arms back to the waist then swing the arms forward and upward in movement to generate power. This will accelerate the proximal segments of the arm where H= Iω (Blazevich, 2012, p.199). By accelerating the proximal segments of the arm and then stopping them, there is transfer of momentum along the arm that results in a high velocity of the end point (hand) (Blazevich, 2012, p.200). The throw-like pattern in the volleyball spike can also be explained as it can be assumed that it makes the best use of the tissues that have the fastest shortening speeds (tendons). When tendons are released they recoil at high speeds demonstrating kinetic energy (Blazevich, 2012, p.200). However, the force in the tendon must be high enough for the tendon to begin to recoil at very high speed (Blazevich, 2012, p.200). This explains that the inertia of the volleyballers hand must be overcome first.

The Law of Conservation of Momentum states that the momentum of a system remains unchanged unless it is acted upon by an external force (Blazevich, 2012, p.112). This knowledge can be used to analyse a volleyballers body mass in proportion to their momentum which can ultimately increase their jump velocity. For example a 60 kg volleyballer can produce enough force to gain a momentum of 840 kg∙m∙sˉ¹. However if they lost 3 kg in body mass their jump velocity would increase by 0.7 m∙sˉ¹ (Blazevich, 2012, p.217).

What are the biomechanical principles associated with the contact phase?

There are several key aspects during the contact phase of the volleyball spike that will maximise the result of a powerful and fast volleyball spike. It is crucial for the volleyball spiker to contact the ball with the hitting arm at full extension when the ball is in front of the hitting shoulder. This placement will assist in maximising power and control. As the spiker contacts the ball, they are stopping the proximal segments which result in a high velocity of the end point (hand) (Blazevich, 2012, p.199).

The bones of a human body create levers in which they are straight and serve the purpose of lifting weight, increasing force or creating speed (Corbin, Masurier & Lambdin, 2007, p.21).  In the volley ball spike the arm becomes a third class lever where the aim is to create and maximise speed. In a third class lever the force applied (effort) is between the resistance (weight) and the fulcrum (pivot point) (Corbin, Masurier & Lambdin, 2007, p.22). When the body creates a third class lever the muscles throughout the body move only a short distance but the arm which acts as the end of the lever moves a much greater distance (Corbin, Masurier & Lambdin, 2007, p.22). This ultimately creates a fast movement at the end of the lever and the speed that is generated will allow the volleyballer to spike the ball with sufficient speed.

Figure 2: Third class lever of the spiker's arm. Notice the load is the inertia that the arm must overcome

High shoulder forces and torque are generated in the volleyball spike (Escamilla & Andrews, 2009, p.580). Torque refers to the movement of force being the magnitude of force which causes the rotation of an object (Blazevich, 2012, p.63). To maximise the volleyball spike it is essential to create a longer lever. By doing this a greater distance between the axis of rotation (shoulder) and the point of contact (hand) is created which will allow for a higher rate of velocity (Blazevich, 2012, p.20). The longer the arm, the higher the chance for increasing the distance between the muscle and the joint which, therefore, results in the arm being able to apply greater amounts of torque on the ball.

In the volleyball spike it is important to recognise that the aim of spiking the ball is to transfer the maximum amount of momentum from the body and into the ball. The volleyballer is required to transfer the kinetic energy produced into potential energy. Therefore, it can be explained that the shorter amount of time that the hand is on the ball, the greater the force that is able to be maintained and applied to the ball (Tiffany, 2002).

The Magnus effect refers to changing of trajectory of an object towards the direction of spin which result from the Magnus force (lifting force acting on a spinning object) (Blazevich, 2012, p.240). In order for a volleyball to move in a near-random trajectory along a near-parabolic path it is more accurate to hit the ball with no spin at all (Blazevich, 2012, p.221). However, in the volleyball spike it would be more effective to place topspin on the ball to maximise power, speed and accuracy. According to the Magnus effect, if topspin (where the top of the ball spins over the bottom of the ball) is placed on the ball, the air on top of the ball would slow down and the air underneath the ball would move reasonably faster (Blazevich, 2012, p.193). This results in a Magnus force where the pressure on the top of the ball would be higher which would cause the force to be directed down towards the ground resulting in the ball dipping (Blazevich, 2012, p.619).

Figure 3: Magnus effect of velocity of air on a ball which has been subjected to topspin

Figure 4: Usual hand placement on a ball which does not follow the same accuracy that topspin is able to produce

What are the biomechanical principles associated with the follow through phase?

During the follow through phase of the volleyball spike several biomechanical principles can be analysed to improve the execution of spike. The follow through phase is equally as important as the preparation and contact phase. The aim of the follow through is to make a clean recovery so that no foul can be called or no injury can occur while in transition to the next play. It is crucial for the volleyballer to keep their head and eyes still during the execution of the spike (Blazevich, 2012, p.66). This will ultimately improve the accuracy of the movement while the centre of mass rises and falls during the jump of the spike (Blazevich, 2012, p.66). The landing of the spike requires the dissipation of the kinetic energy that is generated during the athletes jump (Tillman, Hass, Brunt, & Bennett, 2004, p.31). The increase in the jump height must be followed by a relative increase in the kinetic energy which is required to be absorbed by the body in order to avoid injury (Tillman, Hass, Brunt, & Bennett, 2004, p.31).    

  

Figure 5: The follow through of the spike is critical in the execution of the skill

Figure 6: The tendons of the leg during the landing followed by the jumping phase

The answer:

It can be explained through biomechanical principles that there are several key aspects that underpin a powerful and fast volleyball spike. The spike can be broken down into the preparation phase, the contact phase and the follow through phase in order to analyse the significant biomechanic principles that affect each phase and rely on the order to be sequential. The preparation phase begins the momentum of the skill. Newton’s Third Law explains the vertical force which is applied when the foot makes contact with the ground and then exerts an equal and opposite reaction force (Blazevich, 2012, p.45). Biomechanical knowledge explains that the step-close approach is more efficient through minimal muscle expenditure when compared to the hop-approach (Ziv & Lidor, 2010, p.562). By accelerating the proximal segments of the arm and then stopping them, there is transfer of momentum along the arm that results in a high velocity of the end point (hand) (Blazevich, 2012, p.200). The volleyballer is then required to transfer this kinetic energy produced into potential energy onto the ball where the shorter amount of time that the hand is on the ball, the greater the force that will be applied (Tiffany, 2002). The Magnus effect is an important factor to consider when producing a spike that is powerful and fast as the use of topspin will generate this result (Blazevich, 2012, p.221). To finish the spike efficiently the landing requires the dissipation of the kinetic energy that is generated during the athletes jump (Tillman, Hass, Brunt, & Bennett, 2004, p.31). These factors combined will ultimately assist a volleyballer in producing a spike that is both powerful and fast while maintaining accuracy.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QoKhEiAHfYs

Figure 7: Leonel Marshall’s 50 inch vertical jump which can be analysed through a biomechanically sound technique that maximises the jump height and ultimately the speed, power and accuracy projected through the ball

How can we use this information?

Volleyball spiking is an overhead throwing motion that is similar to baseball pitching and American Football throwing (Escamilla & Andrews, 2009, p.580). The transfer of the skills and techniques used in the volleyball spike has the potential to provide positive transfer. This is due to the volleyball spike providing a base for learning a new skill such as a baseball pitch or tennis serve. The new attractor (skill) will share similar elements with the old attractor (spike) (Davids, Button & Bennett, 2008, p.95). The Magnus effect also provides a base for transfer as topspin is an offensive tactic that would provide an advantage in several ball sports. It is also important to consider the implications for coaches of elite athletes to use biomechanical principals to assist their athlete in performing optimally. If the athlete has the right nutrition and psychology it becomes ineffective if they are not moving optimally (Blazevich, 2012, p.61). Biomechanical principles can be used to gain important scientific knowledge that can improve an individual’s performance through their movements and actions (Wuest & Fisette, 2012, p.184).

Reference List

Blazevich, A. J. (2012). Sports Biomechanics: The basics: Optimising human performance (2nd ed.). London: Bloomsbury Publishing.

Corbin, C. B., Masurier, M. G., & Lambdin, D. (2007). Fitness for life: Middle school. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Davids, K., Button, C., & Bennett, S. (2008). Dynamics of skill acquisition: A constraints-led approach. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Escamilla, R. F., & Andrews, J. R. (2009). Shoulder muscle recruitment patterns and related biomechanics during upper extremity sports. Sports Medicine, 39(7), 569-90.

Hogan, E. (2007, August 14). Leonel Marshall 50 inch vertical jump - Cuba volleyball [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QoKhEiAHfYs

Pacific Coast Volleyball Camps (2014). Volleyball camps – attacking spike. Retrieved from http://www.pacificcoastvolleyballcamps.com/learn_to_play/attacking.php

Tillman, M. D., Hass, C. J., Brunt, D., & Bennett, G. R. (2004). Jumping and landing techniques in elite women’s volleyball. Journal of sports science & medicine, 3(1), 30-36.

Tiffany, T. (2002). Physics of Volleyball. Retrieved from East-Buc: http://www.east-buc.k12.ia.us/02_03/ce/tt/tt.html  

Verhagen, E. (2010). Volleyball. Epidemiology of Injury in Olympic Sports, Volume XVI, 321-335.

Wuest, D. A., & Fisette, J. L. (2012). Foundations of physical education, exercise science, and sport (17th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Ziv, G., & Lidor, R. (2010). Vertical jump in female and male volleyball players: a review of observational and experimental studies. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports, 20(4), 556-567.